By Christel Juquois
Despite the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which condemned Arianism and affirmed Christ’s divinity, many continued to deny that Jesus was truly God. A few decades later, the divinity of the Holy Spirit also came under fire. In 381, the First Council of Constantinople, backed by Emperor Theodosius, expanded and clarified the Nicene Creed, laying out the doctrine of the Trinity in more precise terms.
What happened after Nicaea in 325?
Arianism, though condemned at Nicaea for denying the divinity of Christ, remained widespread. Some close to Emperor Constantine including his son Constantius, who became sole ruler of both the Eastern and Western Roman Empire in 350 held Arian views or rejected the Nicene definition. Bishops who supported Nicaea, such as Hilary of Poitiers, Athanasius of Alexandria, and even Pope Liberius, were anathematized and often removed from office.
By around 360, debates about the nature of the Holy Spirit emerged, adding to the Christological controversies. The Nicene Creed had mentioned the Holy Spirit only in passing, stating, “We believe in the Holy Spirit,” without elaboration. Now, some Christian groups began to question the Spirit’s divinity. Defenders of the Spirit included Athanasius, Hilary who wrote the first theological treatise on the Trinity, Marius Victorinus, and above all Basil of Caesarea, who penned a foundational work on the Holy Spirit’s divinity.
What led to the triumph of the Nicene position?
In 379, Theodosius was appointed emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire by his Western counterpart, Gratian. Both were committed Nicene Christians. In 380, Theodosius issued the Edict of Thessalonica, declaring Nicene Christianity what he called “Catholic”, the official faith in territories under his control. The edict stated: “According to apostolic teaching and the doctrine of the Gospel, we must believe in the one Deity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, equal in majesty and a holy Trinity.”
Theodosius also warned of sanctions against “heretics” whose gatherings would not be recognized as churches.
“While Constantine had sought unity among Christians without enforcing a particular doctrine,” said historian Anna Van den Kerchove, dean of the Protestant Institute of Theology in Paris, “Theodosius imposed a doctrinal line before convening a new council.”
Van den Kerchove also noted that Arians produced far fewer theological writings than the Nicene camp, whose champions were widely respected theologians. Furthermore, Arianism had been adopted by several barbarian groups hostile to the Roman Empire, a fact that may have hastened its decline.
What did the Council of Constantinople accomplish?
Theodosius invited bishops from the Eastern provinces under his rule, by then limited to those he recognized as “Catholic” to attend the council in Constantinople. Leading theologians present included Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, Meletius of Antioch, Cyril of Jerusalem, Diodore of Tarsus, and Peter of Sebaste. Athanasius and Basil had both died by then, in 373 and 379 respectively.
Though originally conceived as a regional synod, the Council of Constantinople was later recognized as an ecumenical council. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 would give it equal status with Nicaea, formally approving the creed refined in Constantinople.
The council’s fathers revised and expanded the Nicene Creed, incorporating elements from creeds used in other local churches. They reaffirmed that the Son is “consubstantial” with the Father. While the original Nicene Creed mentioned Christ’s incarnation, suffering and resurrection, the revised creed offered more detail: Christ was “incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary,” was “crucified under Pontius Pilate,” “buried,” and would reign forever. “For the first time, the Incarnation is historically anchored in a solemn profession of faith,” noted historian Yves Chiron.
The final section of the creed proclaims the divinity of the Holy Spirit, affirming that he is “Lord, the giver of life,” just like the Father. The Spirit “proceeds from the Father,” a theologically complex phrase that nonetheless indicates a direct relationship. He is worshipped and glorified alongside the Father and the Son and “has spoken through the prophets”, a clear appeal to Scripture.
“It is at Constantinople that the doctrine of the Trinity really takes shape,” said Van den Kerchove.
The creed ends with a profession of faith in “one holy, catholic and apostolic Church,” one baptism, and “the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come.”
What about Rome?
One canon from the council gave the bishop of Constantinople, capital of the Eastern Empire, “second place in honor after the bishop of Rome, because Constantinople is the New Rome.” This was never accepted by Rome. “The Roman bishops believed their primacy was based on apostolic succession on Peter and Paul having come to and died in Rome while Constantinople’s claim was rooted only in political and administrative reasons,” said Chiron.
Thanks to Theodosius’ backing and his 380 edict, the reception of the Council of Constantinople was far smoother than that of Nicaea. All subsequent ecumenical councils would build on its legacy. While Arianism persisted for a time, it never regained its former influence.
Key figures at the Council of Constantinople
Gregory of Nazianzus (329–390): A close friend of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory was Patriarch of Constantinople and a prolific theologian who defended the divinity of the Holy Spirit.
Gregory of Nyssa (335–395): Brother of Basil and Peter of Sebaste, both present at the council. He continued Basil’s theological work and advocated his arguments during the sessions.
Meletius of Antioch (310–381): Bishop of Antioch since 360, he was a staunch supporter of the Nicene Creed. He died during the council.
Cyril of Jerusalem (315–387): Bishop of Jerusalem since 348, he was exiled three times by Arians. He authored key catechetical lectures for new Christians. – La Croix International
